Using Lasers to Alter DNA

DNA... it is in the center of every cell in a person's body. It is also at the centre of every cell in a plants body, or a dog, or a cat. It is the central unit of all living things. Located in the nucleus, it is made up of tiny intricate strands that hold all the code for the organism it belongs to. Without DNA, life would not exist, period.

DNA is responsible for cell division, a cells health, and the functions of a cell. Overall, the DNA is what controls who we are, and perhaps even the way in which we think. DNA is made up of amino acids that are formed in chains or sequences. These sequences are made up of four basic amino acids named adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine. The variations of these four base proteins are completely endless.

These same codes or sequences of the basic proteins determine almost everything about an individual organism. DNA is a very important avenue of study regarding modern health sciences, and even computer technology.

Researchers in Germany from Christian-Alberchts University have been working on a very amazing project. They have been studying the way that different sequences of DNA react to light. Their studies are conclusive that in fact DNA will mutate differently to light depending on its base sequences. This means that the code of one strand of DNA will change when light contacts it differently than another strand of DNA which has a different code.

The method through which they have made this world changing discovery is what they call time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy; analyzing the effects of light on DNA bases. In the long term, this research points to a possibility of using laser technology to control and purposefully mutant or change the structure of a DNA sequence; this gives health professionals a powerful tool to adjust the blueprint that governs a person's body.
What is really incredible about the potential surrounding this technology is considering the way this can revolutionize what we know about computer technology. Scientists believe that in time, DNA could be altered to create a type of bio-transistor. Transistors are the building blocks of circuit boards, and DNA is the building block of biology. We could possibly be on the brink of bio-electronics.

It is always important to remember that playing God isn't exactly what any scientist has in mind. The people who lead and dedicate themselves to this line of work are the people in the world who can really change things for the better. There is no telling what could be the positive results of amazing micro technology like what we have seen come from Germany just recently. Stay on the watch for more world-changing technology; the future is in the hands of science and those that support them.

DNA Testing: Reasons Why you Should Do It

The main reason I believe most people want to do DNA testing is because of Paternity. When Eddie Murphy answered when asked about Scary Spice's Mel B.'s baby, he was Saying something around the fact that they didn't know for sure. Once that DNA test was taken, the whole world knew what we all knew, that Eddie Murphy was the father of cute little Angel Iris Murphy Brown. The other reason is if you are tracing your history.

Another reason for DNA testing is when you are researching your genealogy. According to the Health and DNA website, you can learn all about the past by just studying what's in DNA today. You can order DNA tests and find out just what is in your past.

Another reason to find out your DNA is to prove what members are not a part of your family. Say that you had relatives you could do without. Meaning, a horde of black sheep. You don't hate them, but you just can't be around them. Testing your DNA may be a way of getting rid of said relatives if there is no factual evidence that they are really a part of your family. You could kick up yourself esteem a thousand notches and feel no guilt about dismissing people who are not really a part of your family.

Healthanddna.com can provide individualized tests. There is the Common Male Ancestor Test and Common Female Ancestor Test. There is also an Ethnicity DNA Test that gives you a world view of what your genetics is made up of, whether you have African, European, Asian or Native American genes. If the test shows that you have more European ancestry, the European Ethnicity DNA test will further refine your genetics down to Middle Eastern, Northern European, Mediterranean, South Asian or Native American ancestry.

Here are some things that you will find out through DNA testing. If you are of African descent, you can find out which tribe you are from. If you are of European descent, you will find out if your ancestors were hunter-gatherers or part of a clan. Native Americans have four groups. The website DNA Tribes has a database that has over 193,000 people and 665 populations. They also have a 467 indigenous population list.

Reasons for Dna Testing

DNA testing is becoming more and more popular as a way of catching criminals and establishing family relationships (usually in the context of paternity through DNA paternity testing). But why is it that DNA testing specifically is favoured over blood testing and other methods of detecting parentage and what are the most significant reasons for its ongoing usage in both legal and medical circles?

1. DNA is unique to the individual concerned

It's good to know we're all unique. Our DNA is completely distinct from that of anyone else anywhere on the planet. It's like our own individual serial number - whilst we may share certain digits with others, we are in essence completely unique in the make-up of our DNA. What that means is that DNA testing is an important tool to identify genetic relationships, because when we share a number of DNA matches with someone who is alleged to be a relative, it is usually very safe to assume that a genetic link exists. Additionally, this also helps support DNA testing for legal purposes, in which it is possible to use DNA as a strong measure to support alleged guilt in serious crimes such as murders and sexual offences.

2. DNA testing is easy to sample

DNA samples can be obtained really easily, which is ideal for testing small children. An oral swab of saliva or a head hair can be sufficient to provide the DNA necessary for a paternity test, with a view to establishing a biological relationship between the alleged father and the child. Rather than having to test blood types or other forms of identifying family relations, DNA samples are quick and easy to take from any age group and pose no threat to the party donating the sample.

3. Highly-detailed for easy comparison

Because of the intricate nature of DNA, it is possible to use matching of genetic data as a highly conclusive way of establishing genetic heritage. Add to this the fact that no 'new' alleles can be introduced that aren't present in the mother or alleged father, and it becomes instantly clear whether or not there is a paternal relationship in place.

4. Allows DNA testing of more distant relatives for determining paternity

DNA testing, most frequently used in instances of paternity disputes, can be conducted without the need for a DNA sample from the father. What this means is that, in effect, the father need not necessarily contribute a sample of DNA where he is unavailable or unwilling to cooperate. By taking the DNA of close family members related to the alleged father it can be possible through DNA testing to determine whether a relationship does in fact exist.

5. DNA testing is cost-effective and relatively fast

DNA testing is gradually becoming more accessible to people all over the world. As competition increases and the technology improves, the price of DNA tests have come down drastically over the years. Added to this is the fact that it is quick and relatively stress-free to collect the DNA samples and send them to the laboratory, and results can be obtained relatively fast in as little as 48 hours.
As we have seen there are a number of advantages of DNA tests such as Paternity testing which have resulted in an increase in the demand for this type of testing all over the world.

What is DNA?

DNA is a biological material that enables an individual to be identified against any other individual anywhere in the world. It is the most effective subject for determining whether two or more individuals are biologically related, and it is of vital importance in solving crime and determining paternity. But most people don’t know a great deal about what DNA actually is, how it works and why it is the subject of so much research and so much development spending.

DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic acid, is a material found in us all, profiling what we’re like and where we’ve come from. It’s passed down to us from our parents, where we receive half of our DNA maternally and half our DNA paternally. The DNA itself contains the instruction or blueprint for life, and controls the function of the cells as well as being a perfect indicator of ancestry and biological relations.

DNA is made up of various nucleotides, and is essentially made up of amino acids, and it is matched with the so-called bases which provide the key to determining the genetic blueprint. DNA can be extracted from a range of sources, including samples of hair, cigarette butts, blood, razor clippings or saliva. Thus it is relatively easy to obtain samples, which can then be tested in a laboratory to determine any genetic relationships that may be present.

Where DNA Comes From
DNA is made up of one half of your mother’s DNA and one half of your father’s DNA, and will be 50% passed down to your children. It is this that ensures DNA is unique, and allows for accurate testing of parentage and direct descendance through a DNA paternity test.

Why Is DNA Important?
Biologically, DNA is essential to life. It’s found in all humans and all other organisms, in every cell, and stores complex information about the way we are, inherited from our parents. What this means is that DNA is absolutely unique and individual, which is perfect for determining factual circumstances in a number of cases. Through testing DNA, relationships of parentage can be easily established as can siblingship and even more distant family relationships. It can also help establish where two specimens of DNA match, thus allowing identification of the same DNA profile to be made for legal reasons.

Whilst DNA is important biologically, it is also becoming an increasing factor in our everyday lives, with immigration processes, the police and the judicial system all relying on formal DNA testing as part of their fact-finding procedures. Whilst the results from DNA testing are not exactly conclusive of the facts, they do provide one of the best and most reliable guarantees of accurate, positive identification.

Where Can DNA Be Found?
DNA is present in every living thing, and it can even be found occasionally in some viruses. It is found within cellular material, more specifically within the nucleus where the chromosomes can be seen and subsequently analysed. DNA is located within each cell to give the opportunity to repair the body and grow, and it can be analysed to achieve a picture of the original source thanks to incredible advances in testing techniques and research.

DNA Structures

In all that we see in nature, the principle that we usually see is that form follows function. This is because in almost all creatures and plants, the unique features that they have serve a purpose. One example of this includes how some creatures are able to camouflage themselves within their background because their skin color allows them to do so. Other examples include birds with specially shaped beaks to help them catch prey, and the woodpecker is a good example of this. However, this principle does not only apply to the physical attributes of animals and plants as this principle is also followed up to the molecular level. This is seen on how the structure of the most basic genetic molecule, which is DNA also follows this principle.

Form follows function

The function of DNA is for replication and the transfer of genetic information. Given this, it can be expected that the structure of DNA would be designed to serve these functions. For its replication function, the two-strand structure of DNA molecule allows for the separation of these two strands to be able to bind with newly developing DNA molecule. This means that the two strands can “give birth” to a limitless number of DNA molecules as long as the replication process goes on.

For its genetic information transfer function, the way by which DNA molecule is made up of sub-units that contain a sugar, a phosphate group and four nitrogenous bases allows for the molecule to be arranged in a way by which a code is formed. This code is determined by the sequence of the four nitrogenous bases namely, adenosine (A), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and guanine (G). During the replication process, this code is transferred to the new DNA molecules that are formed through a process by which a gene that is formed or coded in the same sequence in which the nitrogenous bases are sequenced in the DNA. These genes then determine the proteins that make up and establish the biological characteristics of an organism.

As with anything in nature, DNA also follows the principle that form follows function. This is because the unique structure of DNA allows it to serve its two main functions, which are the replication and the transfer of genetic information.

DNA Molecules

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the component containing the blueprint that specifies the biological development and composition of every form of life. Its general structure is in the form of a double helix and is primarily made up of nucleic acids. DNA is a polymer strand of nucleotides that contain sequences using genetic codes. For most complex cells, DNA is actually located in the cell nucleus. The physical model of the DNA molecule has always been a source of great mystery to a lot of people. How can a tiny molecule be responsible for carrying all genetic information?

DNA molecules are referred to as molecules of heredity because they are responsible for the genetic passing on of inherited traits. DNA is replicated during the process of reproduction, transmitting parental DNA to offspring during reproduction itself.

Although scientists from ancient times already recognized the propagation of features to the next generation, the formal study of DNA, including the fundamental principles that govern heredity, only started when Gregor Mendel hypothesized that physical traits of garden peas are a result of the combination of genes from both parent garden peas. In the early 1950s scientists accepted scientific evidence that proved that DNA is the chromosomal component responsible in carrying hereditary information. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase's experiment proved that DNA is the molecule that holds genetic information.

The physical structure of the DNA molecule and its complex functioning was proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick who studied the structure of DNA molecules using x-ray crystallography. At that time, it was already made known that DNA is made up of nucleotides made up of a sugar, a phosphate, and a base; each DNA molecule has four different bases; DNA's basic structure is helical. Their collaboration further enhanced these ideas as they promoted novel yet scientifically-backed ideas that led to better understanding of the DNA structure and the ability to work with and manipulate the DNA molecule.

Who can use DNA Parentage Testing?

- Women seeking child support payments from a man who denies he is the child's father

- A man attempting to win custody or visitation

- Adoptive children seeking their biological families

- Persons seeking to identify one parent when the other parent is absent is absent or deceased, or desires to identify other lost relatives

- Someone wanting to determine grandparentage, inheritance rights or whether twins are identical or fraternal

- A person seeking entry into the United States on the grounds that s/he is a blood relative of a U. S. citizen, or someone seeking to establish Native American tribal rights.

- Those who have received inconclusive results from other methods or who wants a "second opinion"

How is DNA Used in Paternity Testing?

Certain regions of human DNA show variations between people.

At each of these regions a person possesses two genetic types (known as alleles), one inherited from each parent.

By looking at a number of these variable regions in a person a DNA profile is produced.

By comparing the DNA profiles of the mother and child it is possible to determine which half of the child's DNA was inherited from its mother (maternal alleles).

The other half must therefore have been inherited from the child's biological father (paternal alleles).

The alleged father's profile is then examined to determine whether he has the DNA types in his profile that match the paternal alleles in the child.

If the man's DNA types do not match the child's, he is excluded as the biological father.

If the DNA types match, then he is not excluded as the father.

What is DNA Parentage Testing?

DNA Parentage Testing is the most reliable and powerful method of proving or disproving parentage -- for legal, personal, or medical reasons. It conclusively answers difficult questions, resolves disputes, helps streamline court proceedings and facilitates pretrial settlements.

Testing is based on a highly accurate analysis of the genetic profiles of the mother, child and alleged father. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the unique genetic blueprint within each nucleated cell of a person's body, determines the genetic pattern and individual characteristics. A child inherits half of this DNA pattern from the mother and half from the father. If the mother's and child's patterns are known, the father's can be deduced with virtual certainty

The Importance of DNA Testing in Today's World

Genealogical lineage is important to everyone. As everyone wants to belong to a family. It is but human nature to want to belong. That is why DNA Testing is important especially to those who have no way of knowing who they are or which family that they belong to, they now have a chance to belong to a family. They will have an idea what family lineage they belong to even if they have no plans of introducing themselves. Just the feeling of knowing, to some, is enough. Haven't you noticed that more and more people are making use of these DNA paternity testing kits to establish paternity between a father and a son or a daughter. Some may not even use the genes of the father especially if it is not accessible at the time but the sister or a brother, or somebody who is closely related to the father. Any DNA sample that they can use to match with theirs.

Some parents have even used DNA Testing kits to protect their children as they use these to get some DNA samples of their children and submit it to a Testing lab for safekeeping. This can somehow ease the worry of the parents for the time when something might go wrong and the child has gone a missing or worse kidnapped. They can always go back to their DNA testing kits for samples of the child's DNA, give it to the police and work from there.

This is not to say that establishing genealogical lineage is the only use for DNA testing as there are many others and more so to come.

10 ways to use your DNA

Not really news, but for a long time now, I have been meaning to compile a list of different more or less useless DNA-technology applications. Although some may argue that some of these applications can be very useful for the individual, and that some of these sites have yet to reach their full potential, I still think these sites share a general uselessness in improving society.

The list is unsorted.

1. Hairloss. But what difference does it make whether you order a toupée sooner, or later ? Maybe it gives you time to save up for your favorite hairpiece, …….although since you spent your savings buying the test ……..

2. Dogfood. Especially formulated fodder to fit your dogs genetics, - probably including proteins, carbohydrates, fat, sugar, vitamins, minerals and salts - it’s a revolution !

3. Several companies offer genetic testing to optimize your diet and lifestyle. This company and this one are examples. You can also order a genetically optimized juice here and your supplements here. Unfortunately I suspect that the advice we all know already, enough exercise and healthy eating habits, is pretty much the advice these companies are going to give you too. Besides most of us know which foods we tolerate or don’t.

4. Personal genetics from 23andMe, Navigenics and DeCodeMe. This review comments better than I would have, on the health benefits or lack thereof. However, these companies may very well provide very useful genetic information for future research. Whether you should pay $999 for this is another question. Maybe join this project instead ?

5. Genetic ancestry. This is a small industry now. Here, here, here and here are examples. A skeptical news story can be found here. Since Oprah has endorsed these tests, they will prevail, - much like the American presidential election campaign 2008 is settled already, seeing that Oprah has given her support to Barrack Obama.

6. Another emerging industry is paternity testing (examples here, here and here). Actually, this is arguably a useful application for some. Getting knocked up and opting out of abortion, will never be the same.

7. Stretching paternity testing into detecting extramarital affairs however, is definitely not very useful. Is it infidelity you discover or just someones DNA somewhere ? This is the essential question, - usually answered in lengthy court trials and not in any given household.

8. Cosmetics. The following genes will apparently be analyzed in this test: MMP, SOD2, GPX1, EPHX, TNFa. These genes encode proteins central in many cellular processes, not confined to skin cells. Assigning them the responsibility for skin “health” is therefore stretching it. My point is underscored by the fact that the same genes (with some additions) are analyzed in the same company’s…

9. Aging panel (genes: MMP, SOD2, GPX1, EPHX, TNFa, VDR, NQO1, MTRR, MTHFR, PON1, Cyp11B2, ApoB). But if determining aging was this easy then what use are efforts like these.

10. Breeding - DNA-testing is used extensively and increasingly in breeding programmes for livestock and horses. In itself useful I guess, but using this to determine your dog’s breed seem to me to be more on the useless side. Most breeds I know are distinguishable by the naked eye, and usually when you buy a dog from a breeder, the complete ancestry is given. Keeping the ancestry logs and consequently having a pure breed, is what breeders make a living out of.

9 Uses of DNA Testing

Genetic analysis is gaining popularity quickly and a genetic testing resource as well as information is available widely on the internet, in magazines, as well as in libraries.

Advances in science are finding many uses in the field of health, forensics, and genealogy. While a few years ago genetic testing or DNA testing was limited to governmental and research institutions today any individual can approach a laboratory and get DNA tests done.

Information on DNA testing as well as access to laboratories is available on the internet and people can find resources that are most convenient for them.

DNA or genetic testing has many uses:

1. In archeology DNA tests help record genetic codes and sequences of life on earth many centuries ago. This creates a data base that can be used as a ready reference.

2. Genetic testing is used to determine the paternity of a child . This helps authorities solve legal problems and settle any tussles.

3. DNA testing can be used to create a family tree or genealogical chart. Through genetic data bases one can trace lost relatives or find ancestors. Since the Y chromosome tends to remain unchanged for generations people can use DNA testing to establish ancestral lines.

4. Prenatal genetic tests help doctors determine whether or not the unborn fetus will have certain incurable health problems.

5. DNA tests are also used to help solve murders and other crimes. Often elusive criminals leave a DNA imprint at the scene of crime and testing helps catch them. In recent years many unsolved mysteries have been solved due to new ways of analysis.

6. DNA testing finds great use in the health field as DNA sometimes is the cause of rare medical conditions or heritable diseases.

7. Genetic testing is used in healths checks like that of certain cancers the tests help determine the presence of viruses or cells that have mutated.

8. DNA tests are often used to reunite lost siblings or families. The genetics of a person leaves an indelible mark and this is used by police and authorities as well as individuals to confirm relationships.

9. DNA tests on new species or on material from outer space help scientists and researchers determine the origins of a species and where they stand with reference to known living forms.

As advancements in DNA research have occurred, DNA testing gets more and more advanced to include: genetic fingerprinting, pupil recognition, creation of records of pure breeds, and more. DNA tests are today affordable and cost between USD 100-400 a test. And the conveniences are numerous; a DNA test kit can be ordered through mail order or using the internet. Laboratories all over the world conduct the testing and send the report back by mail.

Information on genetic testing and is advantages and uses is available all over the internet and those who are keen on getting a test done can do so easily using the internet and safe payment gateways.

How is DNA Testing Done

DNA testing is done for many different reasons. DNA evidence can link an alleged criminal to a crime scene. DNA paternity and maternity testing can identify a child's father or mother. DNA relationship testing can determine if two individuals are full or half siblings. DNA ancestry testing can determine ethnic origins and genealogical roots.

How DNA testing is done depends on the results desired and the samples available. DNA fingerprinting (or profiling as it's also known) is the process of analyzing and comparing two DNA samples. Only identical twins have the exact same DNA sequence, everyone else's DNA is unique. This makes DNA the perfect way to link individuals to each other or to locations where they have been.

The entire DNA chain is incredibly long, much to long to examine all of it. Human DNA is made up of about 3.3 billion base pairs. The differences between DNA samples occur only in small segments of the DNA--the rest of the DNA is pretty much the same. DNA testing focuses on those segments that are known to differ from person to person.

As DNA testing has evolved over time, the testing methods have become more precise and are able to work with much smaller DNA samples. Early DNA testing was done using dime-size drops of blood. Today's tests can extract DNA from the back of a licked stamp. The DNA must be extracted from whatever sample is provided. DNA must be isolated and purified before it can be compared. In essence, it has to be "unlocked" from the cell in which it exists. The cell walls are usually dissolved with a detergent. Proteins in the cell are digested by enzymes. After this process, the DNA is purified, concentrated, and tested.

DNA testing is done most often today using a process called "short tandem repeats," or STR. Human DNA has several regions of repeated sequences. These regions are found in the same place on the DNA chain, but the repeated sequences are different for each individual. The "short" tandem repeats (repeated sequences of two to five base pairs in length) have been proven to provide excellent DNA profiling results. STR is highly accurate--the chance of misidentification being one in several billion.

The dangers of DNA testing

DNA testing is in the news a lot these days, and not solely because of the saga of Anna Nicole Smith, whose burial was delayed amid a legal tussle over the paternity of her 5-month-old daughter, Daniellyn.

The growing success in obtaining convictions by genetic matching (since the O.J. Simpson trial anyway) has made it the preferred identification technology for law enforcement, as well as by other federal agencies. The U.S. military requires every serviceman to give blood for future DNA analysis, presumably for body identification.

States are among the most aggressive users of DNA testing. The New Jersey Supreme Court recently upheld a Garden State law requiring DNA testing of all felons, with the results maintained in a state database and submitted to the FBI.

Other states that have initiated extensive DNA collection policies include Virginia and Arizona -- the latter tests, collects, and stores the results not only from convicted felons but also from most people who are simply arrested for a felony. Florida is now considering collecting DNA from everyone convicted of a felony, as well as from those found guilty of certain misdemeanors.

How To Get A DNA Test

There are many reasons why you might want to get a DNA test. Although we often see DNA testing used in TV forensics shows, one of the top reasons for getting a DNA test is to determine paternity. DNA paternity testing conclusively determines if a man is the father of a particular child. DNA maternity tests and sibling tests are also available. For those who are interested in genealogy or ethnic origins, many DNA labs now offer DNA ancestry testing.

If you're wondering how to get a DNA test, you can find quite a few DNA labs online. There are certainly walk-in DNA labs scattered around the country, but using an online DNA testing provider is one of the most convenient ways to get a DNA test. For DNA paternity testing, online labs will normally send you a free DNA sample collection kit. Once you've collected your DNA samples, you return them along with payment to the DNA lab.

Most testing for relationships, like paternity, maternity and siblingship, is also divided into DNA testing for peace of mind and DNA testing for legal proceedings. You can get a DNA test for peace of mind quite easily. The cost is usually lower and you can collect your own DNA samples yourself at home. But if the DNA test results are to be used in legal situations, then it's important to purchase legally admissible DNA testing from the lab. For DNA test results to be accepted by a court, DNA samples must be collected by a neutral third party. The third party is there to confirm the identity of the DNA donors and to ensure that chain of custody rules are observed.

Once the DNA samples are collected, they are returned to the lab for analysis. DNA test results can normally be received in as few as five working days. For an extra fee, some DNA labs offer a three day turnaround of test results. Test results are usually mailed to the recipient. Some online DNA labs offer online results.

How your results will look depend on the DNA test ordered. For example, in a DNA paternity test, the alleged father is either excluded or not excluded. Paternity and maternity test provide conclusive results. DNA siblingship tests are more complex and the results will be in the form of a percentage chance of relationship. DNA ancestry testing results vary by provider. In all cases, you should do some online research ahead time so you'll know that the test you've ordered provides the kind of results you need.

Definition of DNA

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid. One of two types of molecules that encode genetic information. (The other is RNA. In humans DNA is the genetic material; RNA is transcribed from it. In some other organisms, RNA is the genetic material and, in reverse fashion, the DNA is transcribed from it.)

DNA is a double-stranded molecule held together by weak hydrogen bonds between base pairs of nucleotides. The molecule forms a double helix in which two strands of DNA spiral about one other. The double helix looks something like an immensely long ladder twisted into a helix, or coil. The sides of the "ladder" are formed by a backbone of sugar and phosphate molecules, and the "rungs" consist of nucleotide bases joined weakly in the middle by the hydrogen bonds.

There are four nucleotides in DNA. Each nucleotide contains a base: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T). Base pairs form naturally only between A and T and between G and C so the base sequence of each single strand of DNA can be simply deduced from that of its partner strand.

The genetic code in DNA is in triplets such as ATG. The base sequence of that triplet in the partner strand is therefore TAC.

The first proof that DNA was the hereditary material was provided in 1944 by Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty and Colin MacLoed. The double helical structure of DNA was discovered in 1953 by James D. Watson and Francis H.C. Crick with the invaluable collaboration of the X-ray crystallographer Rosalind Franklin. Watson and Crick shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Maurice H.F. Wilkins.